Showing posts with label Communication. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Communication. Show all posts

24 Dec 2018

Dispersion in Optical Fiber - Intramodal Dispersion (Chromatic Dispersion) and Intermodal Dispersion

Dispersion in optical fibres

Broadening of the transmitted light pulses take place as the light rays move along the optical fibre. This broadening of light pulses is known as dispersion.


Intersymbol Interference (ISI) in Optical Fibers

Let's understand the dispersion with help of diagram given below-


Dispersion in Optical Fiber, Intersymbol Interference in optical fiber, ISI in optical fiber
Dispersion in Optical Fiber (Intersymbol Interference ISI)

You can see in this diagram that the light pulses that are sharp before transmission, gets broadened after travelling through the optical fibre. This Increase in width of the pulses makes it very difficult to distinguish them at the receiving end. Because of this light pulse broadening, these pulses overlap with its neighboring light pulses and it becomes hard to identify them as separate pulses at the receiving side. This effect is known as the Intersymbol Interference (ISI).
Now observe the same diagram carefully. Due to this dispersion effect (broadening of light pulses) the digital bit pattern 1011 at the input side is not indistinguishable at the output side as the same bit pattern. Because of this effect, '0' level is missing at the output side.

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Optical fiber communication (Complete)


Types of Dispersion in optical fibers

Dispersion in optical fibers can be categorized into two parts -
#Intramodal Dispersion (Chromatic dispersion) and
#Intermodal Dispersion (Modal or Mode dispersion)

Intramodal Dispersion (Chromatic Dispersion)

Intramodal dispersion may occur in all types of optical fibers. As we know that optical sources emit a band of frequencies so do not emit just a single frequency. Therefore different spectral components present in the optical source take different propagation delay while travelling through the optical fiber. This phenomena results in the broadening of each transmitted mode and is responsible for the intramodal dispersion. Intramodal dispersion is also popular by another name 'chromatic dispersion'.
Intramodal dispersion (chromatic dispersion) is found more in LED sources in comparison to LASER sources.
This delay difference may be caused by the dispersive properties of the material of the waveguide (material dispersion) and also guidance effects within the fibre structure (waveguide dispersion). 

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STEP INDEX OPTICAL FIBER (MULTIMODE AND SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBERS)


Material Dispersion

Pulse broadening because of material dispersion is caused due to different group velocities of various spectral components that are launched into the fibre from the optical source.
It occurs when the phase velocity of a plane wave that is propagating in the dielectric medium varies non-linearly with wavelength.


Waveguide Dispersion

Intramodal dispersion may also be caused due to waveguiding of the optical fibre. As the group velocity varies with change in wavelength for a particular mode, the waveguide dispersion takes place.
When the angle between the ray and the fibre axis varies with wavelength then it results in different transmission times for the rays which is responsible for dispersion.
Now we will discuss another kind of dispersion known as intermodal dispersion.

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OPTICAL FIBER: STRUCTURE AND WORKING PRINCIPLE


Intermodal Dispersion (Modal or Mode Dispersion)

Intermodal dispersion is found in multimode optical fibres. Multimode fiber are the fibres that allow various modes to propagate through it. Therefore it is not observed in single mode fibers as only a single mode is allowed to propagate through the single mode fibre. But single mode fibres suffer from the intramodal dispersion (chromatic dispersion). 
The intermodal dispersion results due to propagation delay difference between various modes propagating through the optical fibre.


Intermodal Dispersion in Step Index Fibers, Intermodal Dispersion, Dispersion in Step Index Fibers
Intermodal Dispersion in Step Index Fibers  

Intermodal dispersion is found more in case of multimode step index fibres in comparison to graded index fibres. As in case of multimode step index fibres, the refractive index of the core is uniform. Because of this same refractive index throughout the core of the multimode step index fibre, different modes propagating through the core travel with same speed. Because of this same speed, different light rays launched into the optical fibre at different angles at the transmitting end takes different times to reach to the other end of the optical fibre as their propagation path (path length) changes with change in angle while launching.

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OPTICAL FIBER SOURCES (DESIRABLE PROPERTIES)

You can observe this phenomena in the diagram shown above. Because of this, intermodal dispersion is found more in multimode step index fibres.


Propagation of Light Ray inside Graded Index Fibers, Total Internal Reflection in optical fiber
Propagation of Light Ray inside Graded Index Fibers (Total Internal Reflection)

On the other hand, graded index fibres offer less intermodal dispersion as the refractive index of the core is not uniform in it. Refractive Index is maximum at the core axis and decreases as we move away from the core axis. So the refractive index is maximum at the core axis in case of graded index fibers. The refractive index of the cladding is uniform.
But how does this non-uniform refractive index of the core in graded index fibres help in reducing intermodal dispersion?
To understand it, carefully observe the diagram shown below.


Intermodal Dispersion in Graded Index Fibers, Dispersion in optical Fibers
Intermodal Dispersion in Graded Index Fibers 

As the light rays travel slower in denser mediums (high refractive index) and we also know that refractive index in case of graded index fibers is maximum at the core axis and decreases as we move radially away from the core axis towards the core-cladding interface. 

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ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

We can transmit light rays at different angles into the optical fibre. So the light rays that travel near the core axis move slower in comparison to the light rays that travel near the core-cladding interface. 

You can easily understand this, that the light rays that travel near the core axis have to cover smaller distance in comparison to the rays that are close to the core-cladding interface. This creates a compensating effect in dispersion of light rays.

This phenomena is responsible for lower dispersion (broadening of light pulses) in case of graded index fibres in comparison to step index fibres because the light rays travelling at different angles in graded index fiber reach at the receiving end, almost at the same time. Because the light rays that need to travel longer distances (moving close to core-cladding interface) propagate at high speed because of lower refractive index (rarer medium) near the core-cladding interface. This reduces broadening (dispersion) of the light pulses.

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FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION (WAVEFORMS AND EQUATIONS DERIVATION)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION (TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS AND WAVEFORMS)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

STEP INDEX OPTICAL FIBER (MULTIMODE AND SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBERS)

PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUES (PAM, PWM, PPM, PCM)

OPTICAL FIBER: STRUCTURE AND WORKING PRINCIPLE

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM)

COMPARISON OF PAM, PWM, PPM MODULATION TECHNIQUES

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)

CONTINUOUS TIME AND DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (C.T. AND D.T. SIGNALS)

NEED AND BENEFITS OF MODULATION

PULSE POSITION MODULATION (PPM)

OPTICAL FIBERS IN COMMUNICATION: COVERS ALL IMPORTANT POINTS

OPTICAL FIBER SOURCES (DESIRABLE PROPERTIES)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION Vs FREQUENCY MODULATION (ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES)

PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) [ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES]

SAMPLING THEOREM AND RECONSTRUCTION (SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION)

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (BASICS, SOLVED PROBLEMS, APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS)

Digital Modulation Techniques (ASK, FSK, PSK, BPSK)/ Amplitude, Frequency and Phase Shift Keying

Conventional AM Vs DSB-SC Vs SSB-SC Vs VSB (Comparison of AM Systems)

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)/ QAM Transmitter and QAM Receiver Block Diagram

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What are Microwaves and their Applications (Uses) in various fields

Microwaves Properties and Advantages (Benefits)

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Polar Plots of Transfer Functions in Control Systems (How to Draw Nyquist Plot Examples)

Generation of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK Generation) - Block Diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Low Level and High Level Modulation Block Diagram (AM Transmitter Block Diagram)

Block Diagram of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope), Components of CRO and CRT with Structure and Working

Slope Overload Distortion and Granular (Idle Noise), Quantization Noise in Delta Modulation

Frequency Translation/Frequency Mixing/Frequency Conversion/Heterodyning (Basic Concepts and Need)

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Modulation (QPSK) Basics, Waveform and Benefits

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Vs Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)




22 Aug 2018

Communication Channels - Communication Channel Types- .Mobile Radio, Telephone, Optical Fibers and Satellite Communication

We have already discussed the communication system and also the basic building blocks of it with the help of block diagram of the electronic communication system.
Although we have talked about communication channels while describing the block diagram of communication system. But now we will discuss the communication channels in depth here.
Here we will see what we mean by communication channels and different types of communication channels.
So let's first understand what is a channel in the communication system-


What is a Channel in Communication

A channel is a medium through which the message having some information travels from the transmitter to the receiver.


Watch the Complete Video Here

Communication Channel Types-

We will discuss 4 types of communication channels here that are used nowadays-

1.Mobile Radio Channel
2'Telephone Channel
3.Optical Fibres
4.Satellite Communication

Channels can broadly be classified into following two types-

*Point to Point Channels
*Broadcast Channels

Point-to-Point Channels- Channels having one transmitter and one receiver.
Some examples of point to point channels are- Wirelines, microwave links and optical fibers etc.
Broadcast Channels- These channels have one transmitter and multiple receivers. 
Satellite communication is an example of Broadcast channel.

Now we will discuss various communication channels one by one-


1.Mobile Radio Channels

Mobile radio channels have made the mobility possible in the  telecommunication networks. Mobile radio channels do not have any line of sight for communication. The radio propagation takes place mainly because of two phenomenons known as-

*Scattering and 
*Diffraction

The scattering takes place from the surfaces of buildings that are present in the surroundings. 
These obstacles are also responsible for the diffraction of the signals. 
Because of this scattering and diffraction the energy reaches to the receiving station via different paths which leads to different time delays. This problem is known as the multipath phenomena.


2.Telephone Channels

The telephone channels are used to establish an end to end communication link on a temporary basis. Switching mechanism is used in the telephone networks that is known as a circuit switching. 
In Telephone channel communication, the sender speaks into the microphone. The sound vibrations are converted into electrical signals that is to be transmitted through the wired channel.
At the receiving end these electrical signals are converted back into the sound signals.
The telephone channel can pass frequencies between 300 to 3100 Hz that covers all the frequencies that are present in the human speech.


3.Optical Fibers

An optical fiber is a flexible and transparent fibre, made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly more than that of a human hair (including outer coating, its diameter is 0.25 mm-0.5 mm).
You can watch the complete video about optical fiber structure and working.

Watch The Complete Video Here [HD]

 

The light rays propagate inside the optical fiber by the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection (TIR). Now we will know the basic principle of operation of the optical fiber.


Working Principle of Optical Fiber


*Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

The optical fibre has a core and a cladding layer. The refractive index of the core is more than the refractive index of the cladding. So when the light rays move from denser medium to rarer medium (core to cladding) with an incidence angle greater than the critical angle (90 degrees), the total internal reflection phenomenon takes place and the light rays return back into the same denser medium (core). So the propagation of light rays take place inside the core of the Optical Fibre with successive Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
To understand, how this phenomenon of total internal reflection takes place inside the optical fibre when the light rays propagate through it, see the image given below (Click on the image to enlarge it)-

Total Internal Reflection (TIR), TIR, Critical angle
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

The image above shows, 3 different cases of refraction of light, when the light ray propagates from denser medium to the rarer medium.

As we know, when the light rays move from denser medium to rarer medium, then it deviates away from the normal, as you can see in the image. This deviation (refraction) can be seen in all the three cases shown in the image.
Therefore the angle of refraction is more than the angle of incidence when the light rays move from denser medium to rarer medium.
Now look at the image, here you can see that, in the first case, when the incidence angle is less than the critical angle (the incidence angle, when the angle of refraction is 90° degrees), the light ray moves away from the normal in the rarer medium and goes into the rarer medium.
The second case shows the case of critical angle. Critical angle is the angle of incidence, when angle of refraction is 90 degrees (when the light ray moves from denser tor rare medium).
Now see the third case, it is the case where total internal reflection takes place. This is the same case that happens inside the optical fibre, when the light rays propagate through it.
In this third case, when the light ray moves from denser to rarer medium, with an angle of incidence more than the critical angle, it returns back into the same denser medium. This is called as total internal reflection.
This phenomena is known as total internal reflection, because in this phenomena, the light ray is reflected totally back into the same medium like reflection phenomena. 


*Structure and Working of the Optical Fiber

Now we will see how this phenomenon of total internal reflection takes place inside the optical fiber. To understand the concept clearly look at the image shown below (Click on the image to enlarge it)-


Propagation of light inside optical fiber, Total Internal Reflection (TIR), Total Internal Reflection (TIR) in optical fiber
Propagation of light inside optical fiber
with Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

This image shows the structure and working principle of the optical Fibre. You can see in this image the two layers of the Optical Fiber, known as Core and cladding.
Now observe the image carefully. When the light ray moves inside the core and reaches to the core- cladding interface, then the phenomenon of total internal reflection takes place. This phenomena is seen here because, the light ray moves from the denser medium to the rarer medium (core to cladding).
But for the total internal reflection to take place, it is necessary that the angle of incidence must be more than the critical angle. Only the incident light rays for which the angle of incidence is more than the critical angle, can propagate through the core of the fiber with total internal reflection. The light ray moves through the core of the fiber, with total internal reflection taking place each time when the light ray reaches at the core-cladding interface.
For the light rays that enter into the Optical Fiber with an angle of incidence lesser than the critical angle; the phenomenon of total internal reflection doesn't take place, and these light rays move into the cladding instead of returning back into the same denser medium (core).
So, we can see that for the light rays to travel through the Optical Fiber, it is necessary that the light rays must have the angle of incidence more than the critical angle at the core-cladding interface, for the total internal reflection to take place.


*Advantages of Optical Fibres

Following are the main benefits of Optical Fibers-
*Very large bandwidth (2x10^13 Hz)
*Negligible transmission losses (0.2 db/km)
*Small size and very lightweight
*Highly flexible
*Immune to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
*No risk of electric shock


4.Satellite Communication

Satellite communication can be used for Continental or Intercontinental communication. It can cover large areas and also the areas that are not easy to access using other conventional modes of communication like wired communication or optical fibers.
The communication satellites are situated in the Geostationary Orbit, at an altitude of 22300 miles above the Earth. 
These satellites are placed directly above the equator on eastward heading.
We call these orbits as geostationary because the satellite that is placed in the geostationary orbit appears stationary from the Earth as it completes one revolution around the earth in exactly 24 hours. And we know that the earth completes one rotation about its axis in 24 hours. Therefore the satellites placed in geostationary orbit appear stationery (fixed) from the Earth. 
The Image given below illustrates the satellite communication system-


Satellite Communication, Satellite Communication channel
Satellite Communication

You can easily understand the basic principle of satellite communication with the help of this diagram.
The diagram shows two earth stations and a satellite. 
One Earth station here is a transmitter while another earth station is receiving station. The transmitting earth station wants to send some information to the receiving earth station which is located at a large distance from it. 
In satellite communication system the information is not directly transmitted from the transmitter to the receiver, instead it is first sent to the satellite and then the satellite sends this message signal to the receiving earth station.
Therefore when the transmitting earth station has to send some message to the receiving earth station, it first sends the message signal to the satellite. 
As there is a large distance between the station and the satellite, the signals get weak. So the amplification of the signals takes place in the satellite when it receives it. Not only the amplification but also the frequency of the message signal is also modified as per the requirements. After these changes, the satellite sends the message signal back to the earth to the receiving earth station. 
You can also observed in the diagram the RF up-link and RF down-link.

This was all about different kinds of communication channels. You can ask your queries, doubts or suggestions in the comments.

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FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION (WAVEFORMS AND EQUATIONS DERIVATION)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION (TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS AND WAVEFORMS)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

STEP INDEX OPTICAL FIBER (MULTIMODE AND SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBERS)

PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUES (PAM, PWM, PPM, PCM)

OPTICAL FIBER: STRUCTURE AND WORKING PRINCIPLE

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM)

COMPARISON OF PAM, PWM, PPM MODULATION TECHNIQUES

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)

CONTINUOUS TIME AND DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (C.T. AND D.T. SIGNALS)

NEED AND BENEFITS OF MODULATION

PULSE POSITION MODULATION (PPM)

OPTICAL FIBERS IN COMMUNICATION: COVERS ALL IMPORTANT POINTS

OPTICAL FIBER SOURCES (DESIRABLE PROPERTIES)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION Vs FREQUENCY MODULATION (ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES)

PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) [ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES]

SAMPLING THEOREM AND RECONSTRUCTION (SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION)

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (BASICS, SOLVED PROBLEMS, APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS)

Digital Modulation Techniques (ASK, FSK, PSK, BPSK)/ Amplitude, Frequency and Phase Shift Keying

Conventional AM Vs DSB-SC Vs SSB-SC Vs VSB (Comparison of AM Systems)

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)/ QAM Transmitter and QAM Receiver Block Diagram

Single-Mode Optical Fiber Advantages

What are Microwaves and their Applications (Uses) in various fields

Microwaves Properties and Advantages (Benefits)

Basic Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) - BJT Transistor - Working and Properties

Polar Plots of Transfer Functions in Control Systems (How to Draw Nyquist Plot Examples)

Generation of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK Generation) - Block Diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Low Level and High Level Modulation Block Diagram (AM Transmitter Block Diagram)

Block Diagram of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope), Components of CRO and CRT with Structure and Working

Slope Overload Distortion and Granular (Idle Noise), Quantization Noise in Delta Modulation

Frequency Translation/Frequency Mixing/Frequency Conversion/Heterodyning (Basic Concepts and Need)

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Modulation (QPSK) Basics, Waveform and Benefits

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Vs Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)




12 Jul 2018

Generation of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK Generation) - Block Diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Here we will understand the generation of BPSK signal. BPSK stands for Binary Phase Shift Keying. With the help of block diagram we will discuss the concept of Binary Phase Shift Keying generation.
But before discussing the generation of Binary Phase Shift Keying, we will first understand what is Phase Shift Keying (PSK).


Watch the Complete Video Here-

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Introduction

In Phase Shift Keying, the phase of the carrier wave (analog) is switched as per the input digital signal. This is analogous to Phase Modulation (PM).
As we know, in case of phase modulation, phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. In the same way, in phase shift keying also, the phase of the sinusoidal carrier wave is changed according to the digital input signal. So the basic difference between analogue modulation and digital modulation is based on the nature of the modulating signal (message signal).

19 Sept 2017

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Why Digital Communication?

We know, that the electronic communication can either be analog or digital.  Today’s world is going digital, so it is really important to understand, the advantages of digital communication, that are responsible for the digitalization everywhere.
So here in this post, we will see, why digital communication is preferred over analog communication? But there are also some disadvantages associated with the digital communication. These disadvantages will also be discussed here. So first let's start with the advantages of digital communication.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Communication Video [HD]


 

Advantages of Digital Communication


1. Digital communication systems are simpler and cheaper in implementation as compared to analog communication systems. It has become possible due to advancements in Integrated Circuits (IC) technology. These ICs are very small in size, reliable and cost-effective. Such ICs are used in digital communication,

2. In digital communication, it is possible to use multiplexing to merge speech, video and other forms of data for transmission over a common channel. The multiplexing is of various types like Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) or Code Division Multiplexing (CDM).                     
I don’t want to deviate from the current topic, so I will discuss the multiplexing in separate post. 
       
3. High level of privacy can be obtained in digital communication using data encryption technique. This privacy provides the facility to allow the transmitted signals, to be received only by the permitted receivers. This feature is of great importance in military applications.

4. In digital communication channel encoding is used. Because of this encoding, there is less accumulation of noise from repeater to repeater, in case of long-distance communication. Apart from this, the digital signals tend to be less affected by noise as compared to analog signals.

5.  It is possible to perform lots of operations on digital signals, like Digital Signal Processing (DSP), data compression, image processing etc.
                      
6. It is easy to detect and correct errors in digital communication. This easy detection and correction of errors is possible due to the use of channel coding in digital communication.

So these were the advantages of using digital communication. These benefits encourage the use of digital communication in place of analog communication.
Now we will discuss some disadvantages that are associated with the digital communication.

Disadvantages of Digital Communication

                 
1. More transmission bandwidth is required in digital communication as compared to analog communication. This is due to the increase in the data rate when analog signal is converted into digital signal.
 
2. In digital communication, in case of synchronous modulation, synchronization is required.
                 
3. Due to various stages used in conversion, high power consumption is another drawback of digital communication.

4. Sampling error is introduced in the sampling of signal.                        
5. Circuits that are used in digital communication are comparatively more complex and sophisticated.
         
So this was the discussion about both advantages and disadvantages of digital communication but it’s worth mentioning that the advantages of using digital communication are more in comparison to disadvantages. Therefore digital communication is replacing analog communication nowadays.

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FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION (WAVEFORMS AND EQUATIONS DERIVATION)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION (TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS AND WAVEFORMS)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

STEP INDEX OPTICAL FIBER (MULTIMODE AND SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBERS)

PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUES (PAM, PWM, PPM, PCM)

OPTICAL FIBER: STRUCTURE AND WORKING PRINCIPLE

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM)

COMPARISON OF PAM, PWM, PPM MODULATION TECHNIQUES

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)

CONTINUOUS TIME AND DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (C.T. AND D.T. SIGNALS)

NEED AND BENEFITS OF MODULATION

PULSE POSITION MODULATION (PPM)

OPTICAL FIBERS IN COMMUNICATION: COVERS ALL IMPORTANT POINTS

OPTICAL FIBER SOURCES (DESIRABLE PROPERTIES)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION Vs FREQUENCY MODULATION (ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES)

PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) [ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES]

SAMPLING THEOREM AND RECONSTRUCTION (SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION)

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (BASICS, SOLVED PROBLEMS, APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS)

Digital Modulation Techniques (ASK, FSK, PSK, BPSK)/ Amplitude, Frequency and Phase Shift Keying

Conventional AM Vs DSB-SC Vs SSB-SC Vs VSB (Comparison of AM Systems)

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)/ QAM Transmitter and QAM Receiver Block Diagram

Single-Mode Optical Fiber Advantages

What are Microwaves and their Applications (Uses) in various fields

Microwaves Properties and Advantages (Benefits)

Basic Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) - BJT Transistor - Working and Properties

Polar Plots of Transfer Functions in Control Systems (How to Draw Nyquist Plot Examples)

Generation of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK Generation) - Block Diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Low Level and High Level Modulation Block Diagram (AM Transmitter Block Diagram)

Block Diagram of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope), Components of CRO and CRT with Structure and Working

Slope Overload Distortion and Granular (Idle Noise), Quantization Noise in Delta Modulation

Frequency Translation/Frequency Mixing/Frequency Conversion/Heterodyning (Basic Concepts and Need)

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Modulation (QPSK) Basics, Waveform and Benefits

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Vs Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)